The Naked Presidency: The Adams Family; The Administration of John Adams

My decision to start “Naked Presidency” with the senior John Adams could backfire on me. A great deal of light has recently been shed on our second president over the past decade through books and television. At the risk of appearing as a topical strap-hanger, I nevertheless will make an attempt to illuminate dark areas of his administration and magnify the significant areas of others. I find his family fascinating. His is one of the few political families that remains active well into our own contemporary era, though the last political office held by an Adams was as a Secretary of the Navy in the early 20th Century. Since then, they served on boards of directors in the defense industry and today remain private influential powers outside of public office. Here are the key events typically taught in school regarding the John Adams administration. A few “history buffs” will know of these events:

1. The XYZ Affair
2. Quasi War with France
3. Alien and Sedition Acts
4. Jefferson-Burr election dispute
5. Midnight Judges

In keeping with my ideology of avoiding cliches (don't hold me to that), I shall try my best to avoid invoking these "buzz terms" while still briefly describing the events themselves. Remember that this is Naked Presidency. There must be no biases or preconceptions. Please enjoy.

It was March of 1797. Europe's great war of the coalition had finally concluded and the outcome was a surprise to all: The new French Republic had defeated an alliance of Britain, Spain, the Dutch, the Ottoman Turks, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia—virtually all of Europe. But by the end, France found itself governed by a totalitarian directorate that had murdered much of the clergy and aristocracy, including King Louis XVI and his family. Although the permanent ally of France, the US had nevertheless refused to assist the revolutionary government in France in its late war. To add injury to this insult, President Washington’s government had formed a trade alliance with France’s sworn enemy in the middle of the war. All of the war’s belligerents had blatantly imposed themselves on US commercial vessels, treating the states like the former colonies that they were. The president and his overseas consuls were hounded by merchantmen seeking compensation for the property seizures and expenses.

Aside from loss of capital, the biggest problem facing the new president was that US port cities were being decimated by Yellow Fever. Hospitals were filled to capacity and citizens died by the thousand. There was poverty and despair left in its wake. Politically, the nation was divided over the issues of land speculation and the financial institutions. 20% of the federal budget went toward paying off Islamic pirates in Africa. French agents had fomented rebellion and dissention against Washington’s policies. The former Secretary of the Treasury and Federalist Party leader Hamilton was secretly working for the British government. The top commander of the fledgling US Army, Brigadier General James Wilkinson, was a secret agent for Spain. Former President of Congress, Arthur St. Clair, and a pack of land speculators controlled the government of the (Old) Northwest Territories--Ohio, Michigan, etc. There had been a farmer’s revolt in western Pennsylvania to taxation. In the south, apprehension of a slave rebellion on the order of what had occurred in Haiti eight years earlier kept the southern planters nervous. The father of our country was being burned in effigy from one end of the republic to the other. Ruined and exhausted, the shell-shocked Washington had just finished his politically tumultuous second term as president. He quietly withdrew into a much-deserved retirement, leaving a mess for Mr. Adams to sort out.

Adams was 61 when he became president--the same age Washington had been upon beginning his second term. Unlike Washington, Adams was formally educated and had travelled Europe. He was a skilled lawyer, diplomat, and businessman while Washington only succeeded in land surveying and politics. Yet the future seemed bleak for Mr. Adams. Sun Tzu is most famous for stating 2,600 years ago that every battle is won or lost before it is ever fought. Such is true in politics. And so, we begin our brief story of the presidency of John Adams. His administration, though dreadful in many ways, should not be viewed as the common tale of a bitter man torn apart between two political factions. Rather, his presidency is the story of a man who saved the American republic from destruction. He did this at the cost of his own power and reputation.

John Adams holds the record for physically doing the least day-to-day of all other presidents. He spent much of his time back home in Massachusetts. When Congress was not in session, neither was Adams. To be fair, the federal government was small and there was little for a president to do in those days. The capital was still in Philadelphia as Washington City was not yet ready for habitation. The masses did not vote for president, so Adams never had to worry about looking good to that all-powerful kingmaker: Joe Six Pack. Even if he did, there was no television, internet, film, radio, or even photography. Therefore the president had no need for photo ops or reading at children’s schools. He had no staff to manage and no White House grounds to stroll. 99% of his official time was spent receiving well-wishers who wanted government jobs. Men who sought military commissions or appointments as postmasters, customs collectors, clerks, judges, surveyors, or US Marshals had to either write to the president or visit him in person. There was no phone or answering service and no email. Adams did not even possess a receptionist to hold off the crush of visitors. One of his first acts was to appoint his eldest son, John Quincy, to be Minister to Prussia.

President Adams publicly wore a sword on his belt, but the royalist tendencies shared by his predecessor ended there. Being a puritan New Englander, Adams lacked the genteel manners of a Virginia aristocrat, and disposed of the practice of holding court and bowing to visitors. Adams would shake hands and engage in candid discussions. Short and overweight, bald and gray with rotten teeth, he was the model American rustic politician.

He entered office with only two objectives in mind: To resolve the growing conflict with France and to implement the provisions of Washington’s treaties with Britain and Spain. He retained Washington’s cabinet officers, all of whom were fiercely loyal to and took their orders from Federalist Party leader Alexander Hamilton. It was an odd situation. Adams was a moderate Federalist at most. The Secretary of the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott was a direct puppet of Hamilton. Together, they drove out the House Ways and Means Chairman who would have been a roadblock to their designs on property taxation. Barred from ever being president himself, Hamilton sought to manipulate Adams through the cabinet, while Jefferson’s press and political leaders would fight Adams’ Federalist policies. Adams was a moderate federalist, and he would find himself torn apart between the high federalist faction and the republican party.

Regarding Adams’ latter goals, he was mostly successful. He convinced Spain to remove its garrisons from the Mississippi Territory. Spain convinced itself that it could more easily harass the US by supplying the natives still living in that region with weapons and inciting them to attack southern investors trying to move in. Adams established the northern boundary of Maine for a time. Adams finally wrapped up much of this question by enforcing the Jay and Pinckney treaties. In truth, the successes of these treaties were Washington’s, but Adams should get some credit for his enforcement of them. Regarding his resolutions with France, Adams dispatched another delegation to make amends with the erstwhile ally. The French Directorate was cocky after its victories. Insulted that their “perpetual ally” had not only failed to come to their aid during the late war, but even had the audacity to enter into a treaty of friendly trade with Great Britain, the French government again refused to speak with the US ministers. Instead, several French agents requested the US ministers pay a vast sum to their government to even be received by the directorate. This was a ghastly insult to any sovereign nation, let alone a former colony with an inferiority complex. Diplomatic relations were damaged, but Adams hoped a deal could nevertheless be reached. The French continued seizing US cargo bound for Britain on the high seas.

In the summer of 1798, Napoleon attacked Malta and France entered into a second war against Europe. This time Spain would be France’s ally. The US again pleaded neutrality while French privateers continued to capture US merchant vessels. Hamilton had Adams’ secretary of state testify before Congress to explain the dire situation with France. At that point, France had captured well over 300 US vessels over the past year. At last, Congress authorized military action against the French Republic. It was to be our first war against a real military power. The US Navy had over 20 ships of various types, but many American privateer vessels also jumped to the call of duty. Immediately, US warships began defeating French privateers in battle. The war was fought at sea; mostly in the West Indies where French and Spanish commerce was most extensive. The authorized strength of the US Army was tripled and Adams commissioned the retired 66-year-old George Washington as lieutenant-general in command. It was just like the old days. Unfortunately, Adams also had to give generals' commissions to the West Indian, Alexander Hamilton and the Carolinian Federalist, Charles Pinckney. It immediately became clear to Adams that this new grand army was to be Hamilton’s, while General Washington would only maintain nominal control. Hamilton raised the units and organized the training standards. It was one of those tense moments when the ever-so-fearful Americans are quick to pull together briefly in times of crisis. Even Washington’s stepson received a commission as a dragoon officer. The Democratic-Republican newspapers lambasted Adams’ militaristic and royalist policies of battling a fellow republic. To pay for this great military force, Hamilton relied on the fiscal system he had created and pushed his new tax bill through Congress. Adams signed it and new taxes were levied against property. Finally, a counterattack to the foreign infiltrators and seditious newspapers was launched by the administration. The three Alien Acts dealt with the president being allowed to deport noncitizens and granted him the power to make it more difficult for immigrants to gain citizenship. The Sedition Act against the free press was an attack on the first amendment. Adams passed this because no commander-in-chief could effectively fight a war with such strong anti-government sentiment coming from the press corps. The government was becoming more tyrannical. Jefferson knew his republicans would eventually be suppressed.

It took seven months before the first uprising against the government erupted in Pennsylvania. Led by John Fries, middle-aged citizens wearing their old Revolutionary War uniforms chased off the tax assessors. The revolt spread throughout Pennsylvania and Adams feared it would soon reach his government in Philadelphia. He beefed up defense. The militia and US Marshals suppressed the revolt after a few months of fighting. Several men were found guilty of treason and sentenced to hang. Following the example set by George Washington, Adams benevolently pardoned the rebels.

Eleven days before Christmas in 1799, Gen Washington came down with a sore throat at Mount Vernon. He sent for his physicians, who proceeded to slit Washington’s wrists and stab him until the old general died from external bleeding. Despite his manner of death, there is no evidence to suggest that the physicians had deliberately murdered Washington as part of a greater conspiracy. The nation mourned as command of the 19 regiments bound to fight France and Spain devolved to Major-General Alexander Hamilton. He had planned a land invasion of Spanish territory west of the Mississippi River and Florida when the army was ready. The US Navy was performing marvelously in the West Indies and US control of New Orleans and the Mississippi River became a valid possibility. Napoleon, who was greatly admired by Hamilton, had returned to France from Egypt and taken over the French government. Hamilton fancied himself of similar quality as Bonaparte and indicated designs on attaining power following his own conquests. Adams lost control of Hamilton and his own cabinet. The 11-year-old American Republic was facing the abyss. Foreign entanglements had led to oppressive taxes and suspensions of the first amendment. Warlords and bankers were running the government over the puppet strings of the head of state. The French Republic and the US seemed to be following similar paths toward self-destruction and tyranny.

The opposition party of Jefferson took advantage of the general unrest across the nation. By spring of the election year, Aaron Burr had hijacked the New York Legislature for Jefferson’s republicans by creating a substantial political machine. Gen Hamilton had his hands too full in organizing his army to stop this setback. Plus, the Federalists were divided between moderates and radicals. To the chagrin of Hamilton and the cabinet, Adams continued a policy that sought peace with France. In May 1800, US Marines and sailors stormed the fortress at Puerto Plata in Santo Domingo, capturing the port. After this, Adams felt secure that no overt actions against Spain would be required as long as the navy kept up pressure in the West Indies. He had had enough with Hamilton’s megalomania. He liquidated the grand army back to pre-war strength. In a final showdown with his insubordinate cabinet, Adams fired his Secretary of State and Secretary of War. Adams discontinued the levying of the housing tax and granted a sweeping amnesty to any rebels who had refused to pay it. Next, Adams discharged Gen Hamilton and Gen Pinckney from the army, leaving only James Wilkinson, agent of Charles IV of Spain, in command of only six scattered regiments. Hamilton would plan his revenge against Adams. Yet, the crisis was nearly over thanks to Adams’ personal and moral courage.

Unfortunately, it was too late to win back public opinion. Adams’ reputation was at an all-time low. He had committed unforgivable sins in the eyes of the republicans both with the Alien and Sedition Acts and the military buildup against France. Spitefully, Hamilton worked to get the federalists to support a more pliable presidential candidate. Since Hamilton was an immigrant, he himself could not run for office. He nominated none other than his own military colleague, Charles Pinckney. In Virginia, a slave uprising was thwarted by landowners. Two dozen slaves who may or may not have been involved were hanged. In the fall, word arrived that Adams’ delegation had struck a peace deal with the French Consulate. The American war with France was over. The US Navy had performed fiercely, though the French had captured hundreds of merchant vessels. There would be a lot of claims and clean up work. This permanently enlarged the rift between Hamilton and Adams. Hamliton wrote a scathing letter dozens of pages long where he essentially vented out everything he hated about the president, from his looks to his policies. The pamphlet was distributed to many Federalists, but it was eventually leaked to the press. The bad publicity only helped the republicans. Adams was humiliated and Hamilton was ruined again. However, this did not affect much at that point. Most of the state legislatures’ electors had already cast their votes by October. It was to be a shut-out. The Federalists lost the presidency to Jefferson and Burr and lost their majority in the House of Representatives. Adams rode south to Maryland and occupied the unfurnished president’s palace. This white mansion stood out against the wild landscape near the small village of Georgetown. Soon after, Adams learned of the death of his son Charles from alcohol poisoning. Things could get no lower than they were. He had retained Secretary of Treasury Oliver Wolcott due to his indispensability, but Wolcott was still Hamilton’s man. The public loathed Wolcott's policies. His unpopularity finally drove him to resign in December. In February, the votes were counted and Jefferson and Burr had tied for the presidency. As the final decision went into the House of Representatives, the man with the most votes in the end would be president and the runner up would be vice president. Meanwhile, President Adams knew he was on his way out regardless of which republican would win. He dreaded the idea of Jeffersonians taking unchecked power by controlling both the legislature and the executive office in the coming years.

The House was elected by white males of property of the various districts. The Senators were chosen by state legislatures, on whom propertied men also voted. Special electors chose presidents. But the the president was allowed to appoint men to the judicial branch. He played the only card he had left to retain some semblance of power. He signed the 1801 Judiciary Act into law. With this, he created many more federal court districts and appointed federalist judges to all of them. Most noteworthy was his appointment of Secretary of State John Marshall as Chief Justice of the United States. By these last minute actions, Adams placed a millstone around the neck of the new president. Jefferson fought hard and won the election over Burr, who remained silent throughout the ordeal. In order to gain federalist support, Jefferson had agreed to keep Hamilton’s fiscal policies in place and would not try to dismantle the US Bank.

Adams’ lack of grace in defeat did not end there. At dawn on March 4, Adams snuck out of Washington without congratulating Jefferson or attending his inauguration. He left American public service forever.

Adams lived for 25 long years in Massachusetts after leaving office. He maintained friendly correspondence with Jefferson and other political leaders over the years. He stayed somewhat involved in politics, slowly reversing his loyalties away from the federalists and over to the party of Jefferson. Hardworking and puritan to the end, he never faced the bankruptcy suffered by the Virginia presidents. He survived his wife and daughter before finally expiring on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.

Score

Proclamations: 13

Executive Orders: 0

Vetoes: 0

Cabinet: 6 members

States Presided: 17

Territories Presided: Indiana, Mississippi, Unorganized Creek Territory, Unorganized Ohio River Territory

Major Legislation:

1. Creation of US Navy

2. Naturalization Act

3. Act Concerning Aliens

4. Act Respecting Alien Enemies

5. Act to Protect US Commerce

6. Creation of US Marine Corps

7. Sedition Act

8. Judiciary Act

9. District of Columbia Organic Act

Wars and Conflicts:

Quasi-War with France (Authorized by Congress)

Yellow Fever Epidemic

Uprisings and Revolts:

Fries' Rebellion in Pennsylvania

Failed slave rebellion in Virginia

Treasury Status and Budget:

Deficit due to war with France and tributary payments to North African Kingdoms